Anatomy and Physiology Marieb 7th Edition Unit 3 Chapter 13 Review Questions

Entire structure of a human being being

"Anatomy of the human trunk" redirects here. For the textbook, see Gray's Beefcake.

Female (left) and male (correct) adult man bodies photographed in ventral (above) and dorsal (below) perspectives. Naturally-occurring pubic, torso, and facial hair has been deliberately removed to bear witness anatomy

The human body is the structure of a human being beingness. It is composed of many unlike types of cells that together create tissues and later on organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the man torso.

It comprises a head, cervix, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.

The study of the human body involves beefcake, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known means. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the man body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in lodge to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such every bit saccharide and oxygen in the blood.

The body is studied past health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and past artists to assistance them in their work.

Composition [edit]

Elements of the human body by mass. Trace elements are less than ane% combined (and each less than 0.one%).

	Element	Symbol	Percent mass	Percent atoms
	Oxygen	O	65.0	24.0
	Carbon	C	18.5	12.0
	Hydrogen	H	9.5	62.0
	Nitrogen	Due north	3.two	1.1
	Calcium	Ca	one.5	0.22
	Phosphorus	P	1.0	0.22
	Potassium	1000	0.4	0.03
	Sulfur	S	0.three	0.038
	Sodium	Na	0.two	0.037
	Chlorine	Cl	0.2	0.024
	Magnesium	Mg	0.1	0.015
	Trace elements		< 0.1	< 0.3

The human body is equanimous of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus.^[1] These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the trunk.

The adult male trunk is near 60% water for a total water content of some 42 litres (nine.ii imp gal; 11 US gal). This is made up of about nineteen litres (4.2 imp gal; five.0 United states of america gal) of extracellular fluid including about 3.2 litres (0.70 imp gal; 0.85 US gal) of blood plasma and about 8.four litres (1.8 imp gal; ii.2 United states of america gal) of interstitial fluid, and about 23 litres (5.1 imp gal; 6.1 US gal) of fluid inside cells.^[two] The content, acerbity and limerick of the water inside and exterior cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in torso h2o outside cells are sodium and chloride, whereas inside cells information technology is potassium and other phosphates.^[3]

Cells [edit]

The torso contains trillions of cells, the key unit of measurement of life.^[four] At maturity, at that place are roughly xxx^[five]–37^[vi] trillion cells in the body, an approximate arrived at by totaling the prison cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The body is too host to almost the same number of non-human cells^[5] equally well as multicellular organisms which reside in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin.^[vii] Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by extracellular fluids. Of the seventy kg (150 lb) weight of an average homo trunk, most 25 kg (55 lb) is non-human being cells or non-cellular material such as bone and connective tissue.

Genome [edit]

Cells in the body part because of DNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of Dna are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA.^[eight] The RNA is then used to create proteins which course the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate prison cell role and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced.^[9] However, not all cells accept Dna; some cells such as mature cherry-red claret cells lose their nucleus as they mature.

Tissues [edit]

External video
Homo Torso 101, National Geographic, 5:10

The body consists of many different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a specialised part.^[x] The study of tissues is called histology and often occurs with a microscope. The body consists of iv principal types of tissues. These are lining cells (epithelia), connective tissue, nerve tissue and muscle tissue.^[11]

Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside earth or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia) or internal cavities (endothelium) come in numerous shapes and forms – from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what tin and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and role equally sensory surfaces.^[eleven]

Organs [edit]

Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function,^[12] generally sit down within the body, with the exception of skin. Examples include the heart, lungs and liver. Many organs reside within cavities within the trunk. These cavities include the abdomen (which contains the tum, for example) and pleura, which contains the lungs.

Middle [edit]

The center is an organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs and slightly to the left. It is surrounded past the pericardium which holds it in identify in the mediastinum and serves to protect information technology from edgeless trauma, infection and help lubricate the movement of the eye via pericardial fluid.^[xiii] The heart works past pumping blood around the torso assuasive oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones and white blood cells to be transported.

Diagram of the human heart

The heart is composed of 2 atrium and 2 ventricles. The main purpose of the atrium is to allow uninterrupted venous blood menstruation to the center during ventricular systole. This allows enough blood to get into the ventricles during atrial systole. A lack of the atrium would crusade a decrease in cardiac output of 75%.^[14] The purpose of the ventricles is to pump claret to the lungs through the right ventricle and to the rest of the body through the left ventricle.^[15]

The centre has an electrical conduction system to command the contractions and relaxation of the muscle. It starts in the sinoatrial node traveling through the atria causing them to pump blood into the ventricles. Information technology then travels to the atrioventricular node which makes the point slow down slightly assuasive the ventricles to fill with claret before pumping information technology out and starting the bike over again.^[xvi]

Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of expiry worldwide, making upward 16% of all deaths.^[17]Information technology is caused by the buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries supplying the heart, eventually the arteries may become and then narrow that not enough blood is able to reach the myocardium,^[18] a status known equally myocardial infarction or heart attack, this can cause center failure or cardiac abort and eventually death.^[19] Risk factors for coronary artery affliction include obesity, smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, lack of exercise and diabetes.^[20] Cancer can affect the heart, though information technology is exceedingly rare and has ordinarily metastasized from another role of the trunk such as the lungs or breasts. This is because the center cells quickly stop dividing and all growth occurs through size increment rather than cell division.^[21]

Gallbladder [edit]

The gallbladder is a hollow pear shaped organ located posterior to the inferior centre part of the correct lobe of the liver. It is variable in shape and size. It stores bile before information technology is released into the modest intestine via the common bile duct to assistance with digestion of fats. It receives bile from the liver via the cystic duct which connects to the common hepatic duct to class the common bile duct.^[22]

The gallbladder gets its blood supply from the cystic artery which in nearly people emerges from the correct hepatic artery.^[22]

Gallstones is a common illness in which one or more stones form in the gallbladder or biliary tract. Most people are asymptomatic but if a stone blocks the biliary tract information technology causes a gallbladder attack, symptoms may include sudden pain in the upper correct belly and or center of the abdomen. Nausea and vomiting may too occur. Typical treatment is removal of the gallbladder through a procedure called a cholecystectomy.^{[23] [24]} Having gallstones is a risk factor for gallbladder cancer which although quite uncommon is rapidly fatal if non diagnosed early on.^[25]

Systems [edit]

Circulatory system [edit]

The circulatory system consists of the middle and claret vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries). The heart propels the apportionment of the claret, which serves as a "transportation arrangement" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste product products, allowed cells and signalling molecules (i.due east. hormones) from i part of the body to another. Paths of blood circulation within the homo body can exist divided into two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which pumps blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and get out carbon dioxide, and the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the center off to the rest of the body. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and dorsum, as well as the spleen and bone marrow.^{[26] [27] [28] [29]}

Digestive system [edit]

The digestive system consists of the oral cavity including the tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach, (alimentary canal, modest and large intestines, and rectum), besides equally the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. Information technology converts food into small, nutritional, not-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules accept the class of proteins (which are cleaved down into amino acids), fats, vitamins and minerals (the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). Later existence swallowed, food moves through the gastrointestinal tract by ways of peristalsis: the systematic expansion and contraction of muscles to push food from one expanse to the adjacent.^{[30] [31]}

Digestion begins in the oral fissure, which chews nutrient into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is swallowed, and moves through the esophagus to the tummy. In the stomach, nutrient is mixed with gastric acids to allow the extraction of nutrients. What is left is called chyme; this and then moves into the small intestine, which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the big intestine, where it is dried to form feces; these are then stored in the rectum until they are expelled through the anus.^[31]

Endocrine arrangement [edit]

The endocrine arrangement consists of the main endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones besides. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one trunk arrangement to another regarding an enormous assortment of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of office.^[32]

Immune system [edit]

The immune arrangement consists of the white claret cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which are likewise part of the lymphatic organization. The immune system provides a machinery for the torso to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and cost-like receptors, amid many others.^[33]

Integumentary arrangement [edit]

The integumentary system consists of the covering of the torso (the pare), including pilus and nails equally well equally other functionally of import structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the exterior world.^{[34] [35]}

Lymphatic organization [edit]

The lymphatic system extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The lymphatic system is like to the circulatory arrangement in terms of both its structure and its most basic function, to carry a body fluid.^[36]

Musculoskeletal organisation [edit]

The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the trunk basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural office, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of product of claret cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system tin be split upwards into the muscular arrangement and the skeletal system.^[37]

Nervous system [edit]

The nervous system consists of the body's neurons and glial cells, which together course the fretfulness, ganglia and grayness matter which in plow form the brain and related structures. The encephalon is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing; it serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose assemble information nearly the body's environment.^[38]

From a structural perspective, the nervous organisation is typically subdivided into 2 component parts: the primal nervous system (CNS), composed of the brain and the spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous organisation (PNS), composed of the nerves and ganglia exterior the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing motion, processing sensory data, thought, retentiveness, cognition and other such functions.^[39] It remains a affair of some argue whether the CNS directly gives rise to consciousness.^[40] The peripheral nervous organisation (PNS) is mostly responsible for gathering data with sensory neurons and directing trunk movements with motor neurons.^[39]

From a functional perspective, the nervous organisation is once again typically divided into two component parts: the somatic nervous organization (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions similar speaking and sensory processes. The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such equally digestion and regulating blood pressure.^[41]

The nervous organization is field of study to many different diseases. In epilepsy, abnormal electric activity in the brain can cause seizures. In multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks the nerve linings, dissentious the fretfulness' ability to transmit signals. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron disease which gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the nervous organization.^[39]

Reproductive system [edit]

The principal purpose of the reproductive system is to produce new humans in the class of children and ensure their sexual evolution so that they can produce new humans too. It is composed of the gonads (testes and ovaries) which produce eggs and sperm cells (gametes) and produce hormones necessary for proper sexual development. The residuum of the glands and ducts of the reproductive system are responsible for the transportation and sustaining of the gametes and to nurture the offspring.^[42]

The reproductive system is first stimulated by the hypothalamus during puberty which causes the ovaries and testes to produce testosterone (male person) and estrogen and progesterone (female person). Male person puberty by and large occurs betwixt the ages of 13-15 and is characterized by beginning of sperm production and the development of secondary sex characteristics such as increased height and weight, broadened shoulders, pubic and facial hair, voice deepening and musculus evolution. Female puberty more often than not occurs between the ages of ix-13 and is characterized by ovulation and period. The growth of secondary sex characteristics such every bit growth of pubic and underarm hair, breast, uterine and vaginal growth, widening hips and increased meridian and weight also occur during the female puberty process.^[43]

The external male person reproductive organization is fabricated upward of the penis and the scrotum which is a bag that protects the testes. The penis consists of the glans which is the head of the penis and contains the urethra and urinary meatus the signal where urine exits the penis, the rest of the penis is called the shaft or corpus cavernosum and contains most of the urethra. The glans is covered by a fold of pare called the foreskin though this can be removed through circumcision.^[43]

External female reproductive organization with mons pubis highlighted

Internally the male reproductive organization starts in the testes where hundreds of seminiferous tubules produce sperm which is then stored and matured into spermatozoon in the epididymis. They are then brought through the vas deferens which leads away from the testes to the seminal vesicles where the sperm cells are mixed with a fructose-rich fluid from the seminal vesicles allowing the sperm to stay live and remain salubrious. It is and then brought by the ejaculatory duct through the prostate and bulbourethral gland, and mixed with fluids from said glands. The fluid from the prostate helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina and keep the sperm live. This mixture of sperm and accessory gland fluids is called semen and is released through the urethra during ejaculation. Almost the entire internal male reproductive system works in pairs with two testes, two epididymis, two vas deferens, two seminal vesicles, two ejaculatory ducts, two bulbourethral glands, but only 1 prostate and urethra.^{[43] [44]}

The external female reproductive system also chosen the vulva consists of the mons pubis a fatty mass that covers the pubis, the labia majora (outer lips of the vagina), the labia minora (inner lips of the vagina), the vaginal opening which opens into vagina and is where the penis is inserted during sexual intercourse and children are born, the urethral opening which is the opening for the urethra that carries urine from the float and the clitoris which contains the most sensitive nervus endings and in humans has no use other than sexual pleasure. Located between the anus and vagina is the perineum.^{[45] [43]}

Internally the female person reproductive system contains two ovaries, the uterus, two fallopian tubes and the neck. At birth a female has nigh 700,000 oocytes (the immature version of the egg cell) in both ovaries combined, though this degenerates to about 400,000 by the time puberty is reached. This is a lifetime supply every bit afterwards nascence no more than oocytes are produced, compared to males where sperm cells are produced during their unabridged lifetime. During puberty the menstrual wheel begins for the first time, in response to low estrogen and progesterone levels the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). This causes the anterior pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to grow and one dominant follicle volition somewhen accept over. As it continues to grow it releases more and more estradiol which stimulates LH secretion and suppresses FSH secretion preventing further follicular growth. When LH levels are highest the follicle ruptures releasing the ovum in a procedure called ovulation where it is then moved to ane of the fallopian tubes. After ovulation the portion of the follicle that remains in the ovary is transformed into corpus luteum which continues to produce estrogen and high levels of progesterone. The progesterone causes the endometrium to abound thick preparing information technology for implantation of a fertilized egg. If fertilization occurs the corpus luteum continues to secrete hormones until the placenta develops enough to secrete the necessary hormones for maintaining pregnancy. Eventually the corpus luteum volition plough into corpus albicans which is substantially scar tissue. If fertilization fails the corpus luteum will dethrone into corpus albicans and stop secreting plenty progesterone and estrogen causing the endometrial lining to break resulting in menstruum.^{[43] [46]}

Many diseases affect the reproductive system such equally polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) which is characterized past elevated androgen levels, menstrual irregularities and/or minor cysts on ane or both of the ovaries. Information technology is a common disease affecting at least 7% of adult women. Symptoms include excess body hair, infertility, weight gain, male pattern baldness and irregular menstruation.^{[47] [48]}

Another reproductive disease is testicular torsion, it occurs when the spermatic string which holds upwardly the testicle wraps around itself cutting off blood menstruation to the testicle. Testicular torsion is a medical emergency and can result in testicular decease or infertility if non treated immediately by physically unwrapping the spermatic cord. If the testicle has suffered severe impairment, it may need to be surgically in a lateral orchiectomy. The primary symptom of testicular torsion is severe testicular pain at rest, nausea and vomiting may also occur. Testicular torsion tin occur at any age though it is most common in 12-18 year olds.^{[49] [50]}

Sexually transmitted infections such every bit syphilis, HIV, chlamydia, HPV and genital warts are spread through sexual intercourse including oral, vaginal and anal sex. Many of these infections can exist lethal if left untreated though others are mostly harmless.^{[51] [52]}

Cancer can touch many parts of the reproductive system including the penis, testicles, prostate, ovaries, neck, vagina, fallopian, uterus and vulva.^[53]

Respiratory organization [edit]

The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air. First, air is pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the diaphragm pushing downward, which creates a vacuum. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as alveoli (sing.: air sac) before beingness expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries conveying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the bloodstream.^{[54] [55]}

For the respiratory arrangement to role properly, there need to be as few impediments equally possible to the movement of air within the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs and excess mucus are common sources of breathing difficulties.^[55] In asthma, the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing wheezing and/or shortness of jiff. Pneumonia occurs through infection of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema, usually a upshot of smoking, is caused past damage to connections betwixt the alveoli.^[56]

Urinary arrangement [edit]

The urinary organisation consists of the two kidneys, two ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes waste materials from the blood through urine, which carries a variety of waste matter molecules and excess ions and h2o out of the body.

First, the kidneys filter the claret through their respective nephrons, removing waste material products like urea, creatinine and maintaining the proper residuum of electrolytes and turning the waste products into urine by combining them with h2o from the blood.^[57] The kidneys filter almost 150 quarts (170 liters) of claret daily, but most of information technology is returned to the claret stream with merely one-2 quarts (1-two liters) catastrophe up as urine.^[58] The urine is brought by the ureters from the kidneys down to the bladder.

The smooth muscle lining the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax through a process called peristalsis to strength urine abroad from the kidneys and down into the float. Small amounts of urine are released into the bladder every 10-fifteen seconds.

The bladder is a hollow balloon shaped organ located in the pelvis. It stores urine until the brain signals information technology to relax the urinary sphincter and release the urine into the urethra starting urination.^[59] A normal bladder tin hold up to 16 ounces (one-half a liter) for three-5 hours comfortably.

Numerous diseases bear upon the urinary organization including kidney stones which are formed when materials in the urine concentrate plenty to course a solid mass, urinary tract infections which are infections of the urinary tract and tin cause pain when urinating, frequent urination and even death if left untreated. Renal failure occurs when the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste from the claret and can lead to death if not treated with dialysis or kidney transplantation.^[60] Cancer tin can bear on the bladder, kidneys, urethra and ureters with the latter two being far more than rare.^[61]

Anatomy [edit]

Human anatomy is the study of the shape and class of the human body. The human body has four limbs (ii artillery and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the body. The body's shape is adamant by a stiff skeleton made of bone and cartilage, surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a drove of nervus fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body. Fretfulness connect the spinal cord and encephalon to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles, and nerves in the torso are named, with the exception of anatomical variations such every bit sesamoid bones and accessory muscles.

Blood vessels behave blood throughout the torso, which moves because of the chirapsia of the heart. Venules and veins collect blood low in oxygen from tissues throughout the body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's 2 largest veins, the superior and junior vena cava, which drain blood into the right side of the heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the lungs where it receives oxygen and drains back into the left side of the centre. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest avenue, the aorta, so progressively smaller arteries and arterioles until information technology reaches tissue. Here claret passes from pocket-sized arteries into capillaries, then modest veins and the procedure begins again. Claret carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from 1 place in the body to some other. Blood is filtered at the kidneys and liver.

The trunk consists of a number of torso cavities, separated areas which firm different organ systems. The encephalon and central nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body past the claret encephalon barrier. The lungs sit down in the pleural cavity. The intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity.

Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and sexual practice. Body shape is influenced past the distribution of basic, musculus and fat tissue.^[62]

Physiology [edit]

Human physiology is the written report of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, concrete, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in proficient health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed. The human torso consists of many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the trunk in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the claret.^[63]

Each arrangement contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire torso. Some combined systems are referred to past joint names. For example, the nervous organization and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives data from the trunk, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine organisation releases hormones, such every bit to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal surroundings of the body, maintaining blood period, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).^[63]

Evolution [edit]

Development of the man body is the process of growth to maturity. The procedure begins with fertilisation, where an egg released from the ovary of a female is penetrated by sperm. The egg so lodges in the uterus, where an embryo and later fetus develop until nativity. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both concrete and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. Development and growth go on throughout life, through childhood, adolescence, and through machismo to old age, and are referred to as the process of crumbling.

Society and culture [edit]

Professional report [edit]

Wellness professionals larn about the human body from illustrations, models, and demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition proceeds practical experience, for example by dissection of cadavers. Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, more often than not taught to medical students in their offset year at medical school.^{[64] [65] [66]}

Depiction [edit]

Anatomy has served the visual arts since Ancient Greek times, when the fifth century BC sculptor Polykleitos wrote his Canon on the ideal proportions of the male person nude.^[67] In the Italian Renaissance, artists from Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) onwards, including Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and his collaborator Luca Pacioli (c. 1447–1517), learnt and wrote about the rules of art, including visual perspective and the proportions of the human being body.^[68]

History of beefcake [edit]

Two facing pages of text with woodcuts of naked male and female figures, in the Epitome by Andreas Vesalius, 1543

In Ancient Greece, the Hippocratic Corpus described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles.^[69] The 2nd century physician Galen of Pergamum compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages.^[70] In the Renaissance, Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy past dissection, writing the influential book De humani corporis fabrica.^{[71] [72]} Anatomy advanced farther with the invention of the microscope and the report of the cellular construction of tissues and organs.^[73] Modern anatomy uses techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging to study the body in unprecedented particular.^[74]

History of physiology [edit]

The report of homo physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, effectually 420 BCE, and with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship betwixt construction and function. Galen (ca. 126–199) was the first to use experiments to probe the body'south functions.^[75] The term physiology was introduced by the French physician Jean Fernel (1497–1558).^[76] In the 17th century, William Harvey (1578–1657) described the circulatory system, pioneering the combination of close ascertainment with careful experiment.^[77] In the 19th century, physiological cognition began to accumulate at a rapid rate with the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells.^[76] Claude Bernard (1813–1878) created the concept of the milieu interieur (internal surround), which Walter Cannon (1871–1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in homeostasis. In the 20th century, the physiologists Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew extended their studies to comparative physiology and ecophysiology.^[78] Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.^[79]

Come across likewise [edit]

• Anatomical model – Three-dimensional representation of human or brute anatomy
• Body epitome – Person's perception of the aesthetics or sexual bewitchery of their ain body
• Cell physiology
• Comparative anatomy – Report of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species
• Comparative physiology – Study of the diverseness of functional characteristics of organisms.
• Evolution of the human being body – Process of human growth to maturity
• Glossary of medicine – List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in the report of medicine
• Human being physical appearance – Expect, outward phenotype
• Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness
• Outline of human beefcake
• Organ organisation

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Books [edit]

• Boitano, Scott; Brooks, Heddwen L.; Barman, Susan M.; Barrett, Kim E. (2016). Ganong'due south Review of Medical Physiology. ISBN978-0-07-182510-8.
• Grey's anatomy: the anatomical footing of clinical do. Editor-in-chief, Susan Standring (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. 2008. ISBN978-0-8089-2371-eight. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human body.

Await up body in Wiktionary, the gratis dictionary.

• The Volume of Humans (from the late 18th and early 19th centuries)
• Inner Body
• Anatomia 1522–1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library

gehringtince1938.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body

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